Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Lee Shulman (1984) came up with this term and argued that it was one of the particular characteristics of teaching.

Teachers need to be knowledgeable about what they teach (content) and how to teach (pedagogy), but they also need to develop knowledge of specific ways of making that content accessible to learners – So how do we teach what we teach?

PCK comprises a cycle of several activities that a teacher should complete for good teaching: comprehension, transformation, instruction, evaluation, reflection, and new comprehension.

I would say that PCK as an idea is useful but in my own experience content knowledge has not always been a necessity. It is good practice to be an expert at the subject you teach so pupils have confidence in you as a teacher, although there is something very human about not knowing everything which learners will relate to. Questions on a subject matter in which you might not know the answer to are an opportunity to collaborate and do some investigational work whilst relating to your students to develop the student teacher rapport. It gives the message that its OK to make mistakes because no one is perfect – an important lesson for life. Obviously, this should not be a habit but once in a while can be beneficial.

Rather than having a deep set knowledge of everything, your teaching planning can have a very effective role. Once you form a relationship with your students and gain an insight into their strengths and weaknesses you can anticipate concepts that they will find confusing, and therefore incorporate simplified ways of explanation into your lesson plans. Another importance of having teaching knowledge rather than content knowledge is that, after experience, reflection becomes a subconscious habit allowing you to think about what went wrong, what worked well and investigate ways to improve which will then, again, be reflected in future lesson and curriculum planning.

Changes for the Future of Education

Three small changes I could realistically make to my own teaching, which would move things forward in beneficial ways:

1) Make learning relate to real life by (for example) incorporating activities which incorporate collaboration and team work; allowing each pupil to utalise their skills and appreciate the abilities of others. This will encourage respect for other’s beliefs, culture and way of thinking.

2) Enable pupils to change dispositions for the better and allow them to realise their full potential by the use of self reflection; writing their own reports every 4 months. This will enable them to find meaning and enjoyment in things they learn.

3) Establish each pupil as an individual by using a needs analysis, make them proud of their strengths by utilising them in group work, displaying work and delegating class responsibilities. This will increase confidence encouraging intrinsic motivation for learning.

Preparing for the Future

OECD summarises 6 future scenarios of education. These include:

The “status-quo extrapolated”

Scenario 1: Robust bureaucratic school systems

Scenario 2: Extending the market model

The “re-schooling” scenarios

Scenario 3: Schools as core social centers

Scenario 4: School as focus learning centers

The “de-schooling” scenarios

Scenario 5: Learner networks and the network society

Scenario 6: Teacher exodus – the meltdown scenario

Details of these scenarios are included in this PDF:

http://www.oecd.org/site/schoolingfortomorrowknowledgebase/futuresthinking/scenarios/38967594.pdf

When I think about the current education system in which I work and related it to these scenarios, I would predict that in 2020 scenario 4 could seem probable.

In this scenario:

‘Schools are revitalised around a strong knowledge agenda rather than a social agenda, in a culture of high quality  experimentation, diversity and innovation . New forms of evaluation and competence assessment flourish. ICT is used extensively alongside other learning media, traditional and new. Knowledge management moves to the fore, and the very large majority of schools justify the label ‘learning organisations’ (so equality of opportunity is the norm), with extensive links to tertiary education and other organisations.’

I predict that many businesses will invest in Indonesia in the future and as a result there will be a market for high tech businesses. This would be the logoical route to take considering the type of students we attract and links into to our school ethos to

‘provide learning experiences through which knowledge, skills, attitudes and action encourage the development of creativity and problem solving capacities to achieve excellence in the interconnected world’

The scenario which is preferable to me would be a mix between scenario two, three and five; A school which enables shared responsibilities between different schools and  communities with sources of expertise from institutions of further and continuing education. This school will utalise learning networks, quickened by the extensive possibilities of powerful, inexpensive ICT. Learning will be relevant to real life and encouraged by reforms of funding structures, incentives and regulation enabling pupils to learn professionalism.

Using future scenarios as an approach for thinking about the future is very useful, it enables you to relate to your pupils and have empathy for the world they will work in. Reflecting on future practices ensures that as a teacher your teaching techniques are relevant and helpful for learners of the future. As a leader in education this strategy can empower you to develop a niche of learner spaces in order to maximise learning.

Looking into the Future

Each of these web links show a video presenting implications for education in the future:

Clip A

http://archive.futurelab.org.uk/projects/beyond-current-horizons

Clip B

http://wearethepeoplemovie.com/

When analyzing these videos it seems that the dominant messages from each clip is that there needs to be a change in the education system which will cater to the changing world and help solve global issues.  One of the implications for education is the availability and accessibility of technology, we also need to teach students how to think critically and collaboratively. Education should respond by training educators to use teaching techniques which enable pupils to work collaboratively at a global scale whilst incorporating  the use of technological resources.

The main difference with each clip is that the latter is focusing on preparing future generations to solve problems whereas the first focuses more on the importance of change and tools of the future which enable effective learning to occur. If I could use one (but only one), as stimulus with a group of teachers to consider the future of education, I would choose clip A. Clip B seems to focus more on preparing future generations to solve problems whereas Clip A does the same without suggesting how, it requires the viewer to think in depth. Clip B doesn’t motivate me as much as Clip A, which presents ideas about the importance of change and hints at tools of the future which can enable effective learning to occur. It raises questions for further discussion on how to enable learners to make a change to future scenarios and is very thought provoking. Both clips touch on the idea that teachers need to relate to pupils by learning with them, understanding their perceptions and utilizing technology to enhance understanding whilst enabling collaboration, if this the message you would like to convey to colleagues it is best to do it in a stylistic way which would appeal to the learners of today.

Leading Classroom Learning

We can predict that the future will be even more technologically advanced than it is now, there will be a higher population and in turn more job competition. Students will have to be multi-taskers  who are able to skim and scan through many sources of information.Education will tap into this use of technology, a variety of lesson will be conducted online and every pupil will be equipped with computers. There will be a wide range of resources available to teachers.  Education will still take place in schools although there will be opportunities for online collaboration with other schools around the world, some schools may be commercialized.

Teachers will still have the same role in the education of the future although it is important that as teachers we adopt the use of technology and adapt our teaching methods for the quick thinking, multi-taskers of the future.

Although a dated quote, Taylor and Francis (1997) write about ways to adopt and adapt by

‘emphasizing the importance of technical services which work to all aspects of library services, discussing the need to adopt and adapt to changing technologies, recognizing the diversity of settings in which students will be employed, and acknowledging that, for the majority of graduates, the processes involved with technical services will be only one part of their overall job responsibilities.’

More recently, Prensky (2011) outlines ‘easy to do/big impact steps’ including:
 
o  Less “telling” by teachers (and allowing kids to research the answers to
guiding questions on their own);
o  Always connecting what is taught with real-world outcomes;
o  Helping students distinguish the unchanging “verbs” (skills)  of  education
from the rapidly changing “nouns” (tools);
o  Treating students as learning partners;
o  Employing  students‟  own  tools  (particularly  video  and  cellphones)  for
learning;
o  Using more peer-to-peer teaching;
o  Offering students far more choices, rather than mandating what all must read
or do;
o  Allowing  students  to  be  the  primary  users  (and  maintainers)  of  classroom
technology;
o  Sharing  of  successes  via  short  videos  posted  on  sites  such  as  YouTube  or
TeacherTube; and
o  Regularly  connecting  students  with  the  world  via  free,  secure  tools  such  as
Skype and ePals.

Presky, M (2011) The Reformers are Leaving our Schools in the 20th Century. Accessed 13 August 2012. Available at: http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/+Prensky-The_Reformers_Are_Leaving_Our_Schools_in_the_20th_Century-please_distribute_freely.pdf

Learning Styles or Learning Stratergies?

I am keen on planning to produce the best opportunities for student learning although when planning lessons I do not consider 'learning styles' and activities that appeal to these styles. It is my opinion that pupils do not have learning 'styles', instead they have learning 'preferences'. If a student has been labeled as an auditory learner I am confident that this student will still have the same learning benefit from an activity that involves visuals - as long as that activity is stimulating and engaging.  Claxton (1996) makes a suggestion that pupils make a "cost/benefit analysis" of each classroom activity, therefore, if they feel the task is not beneficial they will be unengaged and as a result they will not learn. There is no concrete evidence to suggest that learning styles exsist, in the words of James Atherton (2011) 'students choose to learn in different ways depending on their motivation, the nature of the course and subject-matter, and a host of other variables.' Therefore, as teachers; we should not be planning lessons for the varying learning styles of individuals in our class, instead we should be planning engaging tasks which encourage intrinsic motivation of the whole class.

Review of Learning Theories

When reviewing my personal theory of learning and those of others the clear trends or areas of general agreement among the statements tend to lean towards active and productive teaching methods which involve pupils apply knowledge they have learnt rather than old fashioned techniques where a teacher may just lecture whilst pupils take notes. There is a common consensus that pupils learn through other mediums such as digital technology or discussion. Most learning theories said that the teacher must make the learning material accessible, from this learners can build on existing knowledge together.

The only areas of disagreement or incompatibility among the statements were aspects of learning including motivation, planning, assessment and teacher student relationships. Not all theories highlighted these attributes as an importance. All the expressed theories of learning have drawn on, or been influenced by formal learning theories.

An individual teacher’s personal learning theory can influence the way/s in which they lead learning in the classroom as these teachers put an emphasis on what they think is important and effective. A teacher should be open to the view points and theories of others to ensure their pupils have the best opportunities for learning.

 

 When looking at this diagram I would assume that it demonstrates a hierarchy of effective leadership of learning allowing for the incorporation of personal learning theories alongside formal theories of learning. It demonstrates a collaborative form of leadership using tried and tested techniques as well as the development for new methods.

A Quote About Leadership

“If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader.”

John Quincy Adams

 I admire this comment about leadership because I really believe in the philosophy of ‘do what I do, not what I say’. For teachers to be motivated and inspired they need a leader who can lead by example, this leader will gradually work towards gaining the trust and respect of employees and with this comes cooperation, understanding and teamwork. This quote also hits home the idea that anyone has the potential to be a leader and although as teachers we look for direction from the higher powers that may be, we too are looked upon and admired by others.

Learning is Easy... Teaching is Hard!

I would say that learning is easy. As humans we are constantly learning new things whether its purposely (in my case learning Indonesian) or subconsciously through life's experiences (in my daughters case, learning that sticking your fingers in an electric socket will hurt!). Teaching is hard because as teachers we have a set agenda of what we have to teach and in each lesson we have learning objectives, the difficulties lie in motivating learners, emphasising with our pupils to deliver content in an enjoyable way, eradicating misbehavior, enabling students to discover methods for understanding content and getting pupils to apply new information which is relevant to them and their future.

A range of paradigms

Frank Smith (1992:35) comments:

A … continual and commonplace characteristic of the brain is understanding (or comprehension, which is the term psychologists and educational researchers employ when they want to make the everyday phenomenon of understanding into a special set of skills; the two terms are as synonymous as any two words can be – the dictionary defines understanding as comprehension and comprehension as understanding).

I disagree to some extent that the terms, 'comprehension' and 'understanding', are synonymous. Understanding is the process of following anther's thoughts or ideas, whereas comprehension is using those idea to develop further understanding whilst drawing your own conclusions.

Psychologists debate argue whether understanding can be considered the same thing as 'internalisation'. Understanding in reality is not just something which only moves inward, it is applied, practised and transferred to others. It is somewhat misleading to assume that understanding travels from the outer world across a boundary into the inner world. Full understanding requires information to be reapplied.

I do not experience my own understanding as something completely 'internal', especially as a teacher - I gain full understanding when information is recycled and passed on, this 'tests' how much knowledge I absorb. This is a way in which my own understanding is established collectively (and therefore, in some sense, externally).

How theories explain learning behaviour

Theories can be very useful to teachers as they engage in classroom behavior management. Examples of this might be when planning lessons for different ages, therefore a teacher can anticipate any behavioral problems that might occur using theories according to age or cognitive development. Social theories might allow a teacher to have a greater understanding of why a pupil behaves in a certain way and use techniques to render this. Affective theories give a teacher insight into ways of dealing with bad behavior using tried and tested techniques. The use of theories allows teachers to plan, evaluate and form strategies to ensure pupils learn.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, which indicates four types of nested environmental systems, which have influence within and between the systems, was used to focus the research findings of the EPPI research report (Powell and Tod, 2004) to within the context of a school. Therefore the review was limited, due to the time frame. It excluded studies that were linked to theories and behaviors outside the school context.

The key features of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is that the four different environments affect a pupil in different ways. These environments being; the Microsystem; the immediate environment that an individual interacts with (school, home, family), the Mesosystem; relations between microsystems (family experiences, peer experiences), the Exosystem: a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role (a parent loses a job, divorce), and the Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live (religion, values).

This theory can help teachers gain an understanding of why child behaves in a certain way and gives insight into how the needs of the child can be met. In the classroom or school context the different environments can be managed to create a safe, effective and positive place to learn.

Learning theory

Teachers who are emphasising formative assessment change their underlying beliefs about what counts as 'good teaching'. Their focus is less on teaching and more on learning in their classroom.
(Black et al., 2003: 80).

The transition from a focus on Assessment of Learning to a focus on Assessment for Learning creates a need for clearer learning theory.

Constructivist theory could be used to support the recommendations made in 'Assessment for Learning'. I am going to focus on the constructive theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Wood, Bruner and Ross when applying it to the approaches recommended in Assesment for learning (Afl).

Voygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) theory can assist teachers when applying the Questioning and wait time approach as teachers can assess what students already know, and need to know and have the ability to know with assistance. This means questions can be more focused and achievable for students. If students are unable to answer the questions simple prompts or hints can be used, supporting Wood, Bruner and Ross’s scaffolding theory.

Peer assessment can also be more effective by using the ZPD to establish who the 'more knowledgeable others (MKO) are, these MKOs can then be grouped together so the work they assess is at a similar level, allowing them to aim higher. On the other hand a MKO can be grouped with those less knowledgeable than them to help bring these pupils up to a reasonable level of understanding and achievement, allowing the MKOs to reinforce what they are doing right and giving a struggling student model answers, for example.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development can be used to assess what students should or should not be able to achieve in relation to the stage they are at. Therefore comment only marking can be more specific to the expected ability of the pupil. A rubric could also be produced reflecting the different stages of cognitive development which can be used for self assessment.

These theories all support the Afl recommendations and they are useful when incorporated into the different approaches of formative, summative and diagnostic assessment.

Self and peer assessment

The criteria for evaluating any learning achievements must be made transparent to pupils to enable them to have a clear overview both of the aims of their work and of what it means to complete it successfully. It is very difficult for pupils to achieve a learning goal unless they understand that goal and can assess what they need to do to reach it. So self assessment is crucial to learning.

The argument proposed by the AfL team is that peer assessment can be a stepping stone to self assessment - that peer and self assessment feed each other and improve the quality of teacher-pupil communication about learning.

While peer and self assessment can make important contributions to the quality of pupil learning, they do need to be carefully introduced and managed.

Here are some ground rules for peer assessment:

• We share our ideas and listen to each other
• We talk one at a time
• We respect each other's opinions
• We give reasons to explain our ideas
• If we disagree we ask 'why'?
• We try to agree in the end

(Mercer, 2000: 162)

 

• The criteria for evaluating any learning achievements must be made transparent to pupils to enable them to have a clear overview both of the aims of their work and of what it means to complete it successfully. Such criteria may well be abstract—concrete examples
  should be used in modelling exercises to develop understanding.
• Pupils should be taught the habits and skills of collaboration in peer-assessment, for these are of intrinsic value. Futhermore, peer discussion can help self-assessment by helping pupils to see their own work more objectively – through the eyes of their peers.
• Pupils should be encouraged to keep in mind the aims of their work and to assess their own progress to meet these aims as they proceed. They will then be able to guide their own work, and so become independent learners.

Feedback through marking

A culture of success should be promoted where every student can make achievements by building on their previous performance, rather than by being compared with others. Such a culture is promoted by informing pupils about the strengths and weaknesses demonstrated in their work and by giving feedback about what the next steps should be.
(Black et al., 2003: 46)

Main recommendations of feedback through marking:

• Written tasks, alongside oral questioning, should encourage pupils to develop and show understanding of the key features of what they have learnt.
• Comments should identify what has been done well and what still needs improvement,and give guidance on how to make that improvement.
• Opportunities for pupils to follow up comments should be planned as part of the overall learning process.

My own classroom marking policy is that:

• When I write a comment about what needs to be done next / thought about.
• My comments should make the pupils feel pleased with the work they have done but also provides constructive criticism.
• I never compare a students work to another's.
• Language should be used positively in order to stop pupils becoming demotivated.
• Marking should help pupils be even more successful in learning.
• The work is usually given back with a short debrief from myself.

The Assessment for Learning research project

In 2005, the UK Assessment Reform Group responded to this question in the following way:

The answer to this question is 'yes'. Assessment is one of the most powerful educational tools for promoting effective learning. But it must be used in the right way. There is no evidence that increasing the amount of testing will enhance learning. Instead the focus needs to be on helping teachers to use assessment as part of teaching and learning.
(Assessment Reform Group, 2005: 2)

The individual techniques being recommended by AfL are not all new:

• Rich questioning
• Comment only marking
• Sharing criteria with learners
• Self assessment
• Peer assessment

So what is new in general about this approach?

What is new is that formative assessment provides a way for teachers to create classrooms that are more consistent with the research on learning. A focus on formative assessment does not just add on a few techniques here and there – it organises the whole teaching and learning venture around learning and supports teachers in organising the learning experiences of their pupils more productively.
(Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall and Wiliam, 2003: 79)

In my classroom I use comment only marking when marking homework. I give a positive and negative comment and a comment about how the pupil can improve next time, this informs the student about what they are doing wrong or right and how they can do better. I get students to mark each others work and give them a copy of the mark criteria so they can see how to get top marks and understand what examiners are looking for in answers. I also use peer assessment which allows students to be more critical about themselves and reinforce the aims of the curriculum.

Key principles of behaviour for learning

Garners (2001) conceptual framework identifies the behaviour for learning model in which different factors can effect learning behaviour. It can best be conceptualized as a set of three relationships experienced by pupils. These
relate to their relationships:

• with themselves (how they fed about themselves, their self-confidence as a learner and their
  self-esteem);
• with others (how they interact socially and academically with others in their class and school);
• with the curriculum (how accessible they red a lesson is, how best they think they learn).

The four practical features which Garner identifies are:

- Leadership in the classroom

Three broad elements which help to define the ethos of your classroom are:

• motivation – you need to provide time :It the start of each lesson to tell pupils what they are learning and why. Pupils need to be involved at every stage in assessing whether these learning
  intentions have been met.
• emotional well-being- to help reduce pupil anxiety you should share the lesson structure with
  pupils at the start, so they know what is going to happen during the lesson;
• expectations - you need to give time at the start of the lesson and for each new activity to
  make clear what behaviours are needed for this piece of learning to be successful.
  

These three underpinning principles are embedded in more specific teacher actions, which allow you
to demonstrate your role as the 'class room leader' to your pupils. These include:

• good communication between yourself and your pupils;
• secure subject knowledge;
• Providing lively, well paced lessons;
• understanding and meeting the learning needs of all pupils in your class;
• acting on your reflections and evaluations of previous lessons
• demonstrating confidence and direction in managing pupils.

- incorporation of the promotion of positive relationships.

• modeling appropriate behaviour;
• positive reinforcement and the use of praise;
• positive correction;
• consistent and firm application of rules;
• Use of verbal and non-verbal communication;
• listening to pupils and respecting their opinions;
• remaining vigilant (pre-empting unacceptable behaviour);
• dealing positively with lateness and non-attendance.

- Structuring the lesson for positive behaviour and attendance

• focus and structure so that pupils arc clear about what is to be learned and how it fits with what they know already;
• actively engaging pupils in their learning so that they make their own meaning from it;
• developing pupils' learning skills systematically so that their learning becomes increasingly independent;
• using assessment for learning to help pupils reflect on what they already know, reinforce the learning being developed and set targets for the future
• having high expectations of the effort that pupils should make and what they can achieve
• motivating pupils by well-paced lessons, using stimulating activities matched a range of
  learning styles which encourage attendance;
• creating an environment that promotes learning in a settled and purposeful atmosphere.

- Rights, responsibilities, routines and rules.

• Teacher's responsibilities - you must seek to enable all pupils to learn, to seek and celebrate improvements in learning, to treat pupils with respect and to create a positive classroom environment in which pupils feel safe and able to learn.
• Teacher's rights - you must be allowed to teach with a minimum of hindrance, to feel safe, to be supported by colleagues and to be listened to.
• Pupils' responsibilities - pupils must be willing to learn, to allow others to learn, to co-operate with teaching and other staff and peers and to do their best at all times.
• Pupils' rights - pupils should he treated with respect, be safe, be able to learn and be listened to.

RULES

These are the mechanisms by which rights and responsibilities arc translated into adult and pupil
behaviours. They are best constructed collaboratively, so that the views of pupils arc taken into account.


ROUTINES

These arc the structures which underpin the rules and reinforce the smooth running of the classroom. The more habitual the routines become the more likely they arc to be used . Pupils who behave ill appropriately often do so because they are unsure of what is happening in the classroom at a given time.


CHOICES

Pupils should be encouraged to make choices about their behaviour and thus take responsibility for their own actions. Choice is guided by their responsibilities and leads to positive or negative consequences according to the choice made by the pupil.


CONSEQUENCES

Pupils know the consequences of sensible or inadvisable choices. Responsible choices lead to positive consequences; conversely, a choice to behave inappropriately leads to a known negative consequence.

School behavior policy

 

My own view of acceptable behavior is very similar to that of my school's. Our schools policy states that all learners will become Inquirers, Thinkers, Communicators, Risk-takers, Knowledgeable, Principled, Caring, Open-minded, Balanced, and Reflective. In order to achieve this they must show Respect,   Cooperation,   Commitment,   Appreciation,   Empathy, Tolerance,   Integrity,   Curiosity,   Enthusiasm,   Creativity, Confidence,   and Independence.

The policy puts a lot of emphasis on rights and responsibilities. The policy is not just for pupils, it is for ‘members’ of the school including students, parents or members of staff There are five parts to the rights and responsibilities of students including ‘emotional’, ‘Intellectual’, ‘Social’, ‘Physical’ and ‘Cultural’ each section indicates the rights and responsibilities.

There are no policies in place for a situation in which a pupil does not conform to the policy, although  it provides scope for teachers to implement their own policies and deal with problems independently stating, ‘Each classroom will develop their own ‘Agreement’ based on the ‘School’s Essential Agreement’.’ So this allows pupils to be involved in the process of deciding what is and isn’t acceptable behavior. Although it is important that each classroom policy reflects that of the main behavior policy to create consistency within the school.

Acceptable and unacceptable behaviour

Pupils need to develop effective social, behavioural and emotional skills as a basis for successful learning.

The Primary National Strategy in England and Wales (DfES, 2003) said that children with such skills are able to:

• Be effective and successful learners
• Make and sustain friendships
• Deal with and resolve conflict effectively and fairly
• Solve problems with others and by themselves
• Manage strong feelings such as frustration, anger and anxiety
• Recover from setbacks and persist in the face of difficulties
• Work and play cooperatively
• Compete fairly and win and lose with dignity and respect for competitors

When thinking about my classes students that fall short of these qualities are those who are inattentive and those who misbehave.

If I was to define unacceptable behavior I would say it is that which causes disruption to lessons, is damaging to others and stops others from learning.

Here is a table of what I consider totally unacceptable and acceptable:

Totally unacceptable behaviour	Acceptable in certain circumstances	Acceptable behaviour
Fighting	Swearing	Not paying attention
Bullying	Not doing homework	Lateness
Sleeping		Joking
Shouting		Being cheeky
Damaging equipment		Talking off task
Graffiti
Insulting teachers
Skipping class
Arguing

Key issues in differentiation

Differentiation helps to ensure that the way you teach and what you teach match learners' needs. Pupils have diverse needs and there are many potential barriers to learning. Effective teachers need to ensure that they offer the same learning opportunities to all pupils.

Differentiation is not just about raising the standards of underachieving pupils. Differentiated approaches aim to raise the standards of all pupils.

key issues in differentiation

• Cater for EVERY student. – Treat them all individually, they each have their own needs
• Look at ALL the needs of ALL the pupils
• Seek advise and collaborate with other teachers for students with ‘special’ needs
• Build relationships with each pupil
• Activley group students of different levels
• Try different teaching approaches, not just teacher led.

Defining Differentiation

The National Curriculum Council defined differentiation as 'the process by which curriculum objectives, teaching methods, assessment, resources and learning activities are planned to cater for the needs of individual pupils,' and Tomlinson and Allan (2000) say that differentiation is defined as 'a teacher's reacting responsively to a learner's needs.'

Differentiation is the matching of work to the different capabilities of individuals or groups in order to extend their learning.

Differentiation is about entitlement of access to a full curriculum in order that every pupil can reach their full potential (McNamara and Moreton, 1997).

Differentiation means 'shaking up' what goes on in the classroom so that students have multiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas, and expressing what they learn (Tomlinson, 1999).

Differentiation is a planned process of intervention by the teacher in the pupil's learning.

Here is my definition:

Differentiation is when the planning, processes, activities, resources and teacher of a lesson meet the learning needs and style of every pupil.

Pupil grouping

Streaming involved the grouping of pupils into classes according to their academic ability. The membership of a streamed class remains the same for all subjects.

Setting allocates pupils to 'sets' according to their ability in particular subjects. A pupil might be in the top set for English but a middle or low set for Maths. Setting recognises that pupils can have different levels of attainment across different subjects.

Banding organises pupils in broad groups for all subjects. A school might organise a year group into upper and lower bands. Pupils might be in different sets within their band but would not be able to experience any lessons outside their band.

There is no setting or banding in my school because it is still growing. All classes are mixed ability. The advantages of this are pupils get to help other pupils who are struggling, the higher achieving pupils set a good example for the others and small groups can be effectively streamed. The disadvantages are that stronger students are slowed down, it is harder for a teacher to pitch a lesson to different levels and students can get frustrated with other students.

Here is a comparison chart of different types of grouping:

 

	Advantages	Disadvantages
Setting	- matching work to learners' need. gaining status and getting a higher grade in tests through being in a high group - allowing for differential attainment in different subjects - minimising behaviour problems. - matching work to learners' needs -raising academic standards, particularly for more able pupils and students - preventing bright pupils and students being inhibited by negative peer pressure - students saw being 'average' as giving protection from teasing and as offering an enjoyable atmosphere which was not too competitive	- many students felt that the work they were given was either too easy or too hard. -  learners being more aware of differences in their performance levels - students in both the lowest and highest sets being stigmatised, teased or called names like 'thick', 'dumb', 'boffin' and 'clever clogs', which many students found upsetting -the pressure of work in the top set and work being too easy in lower sets - not being in the same set as their friends. - learners possibly being given unequal opportunities - stigmatisation of students seen as lower attaining, which teachers saw as having a damaging effect on these students' self-esteem - more discipline problems and disaffection in the lower sets.
Mixed ability	- Students have more positive views of themselves in school - students' relationships with teachers and the school were better as a whole - more students' got on well with all their teachers and saw school as a 'good friend'. - raised the self-confidence of lower attaining students	- lowered the self-confidence of higher attaining students.   - students may be more aware of their performance -

Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessment

Norm-referenced assessment compares an individual pupil's performance with the performances of other pupils. Giving one pupil a grade or mark doesn't help us to diagnose specific learning difficulties but does tell us about levels of performance in relation to others in the same class and year group.

Criterion-referenced assessment aims to show how far a pupil has met pre-specified learning objectives. For example, a 'driving test' would be a form of criterion-referenced assessment because the standards that have to be met are clearly defined in advance of the task. Similarly, in the classroom, teachers sometimes identify the criteria for success in a subject. Then they use those criteria to evaluate pupils' progress. In this sense, criterion-referenced assessment is an important part of formative assessment.

Some of the norm- and criterion-referenced assessment practices in your school are endorsed by Cambridge International examinations (CIE). Most subjects are exam based, consisting of two exams at the end of the two year course. Some subjects consist of coursework as well as an exam. The course work in my subject (Global Perspectives) gives marks for pupils collaboration, planning and research skills in a group and individual project. We give pupils mock exams to check their progress and give them predicted grades. These mock exams are useful as it gives pupil and teacher and idea of what pupils are doing well or areas of weakness, it also motivates students to get better marks but sometimes it can have the opposite effect making pupils demotivated and less driven if they keep getting bad grades. We also give intern and end of semester reports highlighting pupils strengths and weaknesses and offering advice on how to do better.

Formative, summative and diagnostic assessment

Summative assessment aims to sum up a pupil's achievement and progress. An example might be writing a report for parents or providing certificates at the end of schooling. Summative assessment will usually occur at the end of a piece of writing or at the end of a unit of work, offering a verdict on overall progress and summarising achievement.

Formative assessment aims to gather evidence to decide what a pupil needs to do next, for example, to guide learning or to inform future teaching. Formative assessment offers feedback which can be used both by teachers and pupils to modify the quality of teaching or content of learning.

Diagnostic assessment aims to identify and explain what a pupil is able and not able to do (e.g. to reveal learning difficulties or to build on strengths).

Here is my order of importance, 1 is most important, 11 is least:

• To acknowledge pupils' efforts –2 (Summative)
• To motivate pupils  -1 (Formative)
• To monitor progress – 3 (Formative)
• To identify pupils with special educational needs – 10 (Diagnostic)
• To establish evidence of achievement – 5 (Summative)
• To detect pupil under-achievement – 9 (Diagnostic)
• To report to parents – 6 (Formative)
• To support the grouping of pupils – 7 (Formative)
• To measure achievement at the end of a course – 8 (Summative)
• To compare pupils – 11 (Diagnostic)
• To inform planning – 4 (Formative)

I use summative assessment by:

- Writing an end of semester report

- End of unit tests

- Exams

I use formative assessment by:

- continuous marking of classwork and homework

- Observation of students

- mini quizzes

I use Diagnostic assessment by:

- Leader boards of pupils grades

- Exams

- Observation

The ways in which I might want to change the balance between these three assessment approaches is to integrate them together. I would like to use more formative assessment as it is useful for the teacher and students and can increase motivation.

Ground Rules for Group Work

It is an effective way of using language to think collectively, and the process of education should ensure that every child is aware of its value and able to use it effectively. However, observational research evidence suggests that very little of it naturally occurs in classrooms when children work together in groups.
(Mercer, 2000: 153)

The following problems could arise during group work:

• One or two pupils in each group are not contributing
• One group is stuck and looking quite awkward and embarrassed
• When you join the groups, they get self-conscious and stop talking
• You were hoping for an exploratory discussion of possibilities, but they seem to have reverted to banter and lists of known facts
• You have allowed fifteen minutes for in-depth discussion, but they ran out of steam once they had aired the obvious issues in the first three minutes
• They seem to enjoy talking about the subject but when it comes to feedback, nobody wants to volunteer and you end up making all the running

Here’s how I would deal with 3 of these problems:

- One or two pupils in each group are not contributing

In this case I would observe the group more. If the problem persists I will assign the problem students to a different group where they either feel more comfortable of they are at the same level.  If the group will work together for an extended time I will  get the group to fill in a log each time they meet of what each pupil has contributed.

- One group is stuck and looking quite awkward and embarrassed

I will promt the group and assist them with any difficulty.

- You were hoping for an exploratory discussion of possibilities, but they seem to have reverted to banter and lists of known facts

Brainstorm at the beginning of the lesson so they exhaust all these facts. Set some parameters.

Here are my ‘Golden Rules’ for group work:

• All group activities, even short ones, should have clear and explicit outcomes.
• Tell the groups how long they have for the task.
• Allocate roles to group members – e.g. group roles (chair, observer, timekeeper, spokesperson, minute-taker) or discussion roles (proposer, devils' advocate, opposer, supporter, summarizer, sceptic).
• Stage or structure the talk around a prompt list or task guidelines or the oral equivalent of a writing frame.
• Use one group member as an observer to give feedback on the way the group worked together and how they might improve
• Debrief the activity by reflecting on the kinds of group strategies that work best for the task in hand

The value of Group Work

Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals and cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and one another's learning.
(Johnson and Johnson, 1990: 69).

I get my pupils to work in groups every lesson, although at times it is not possible because I teach at a small school with one class only consisting of two pupils, but I in the bigger classes pupils work in groups up to 3 times in a lesson.

When working in groups they cooperate well although sometimes the less able students are left out. I have to pick groups carefully because some groups tend not to work together. It depends on the group if they 'maximize their own and one another's learning, mostly they do, but it only benefits them if all are actively involved. 

The philosophy of group work can easily be misunderstood. When organised well, however, cooperative approaches to learning, by requiring pupils to explain their ideas to others or to argue a point of view, can help them to fully develop their understanding of many topics.

Group work can also help pupils to learn to communicate well and work effectively in teams. Both qualities are highly valued by employers.

In my opinion, after watching a program of teachers trying various techniques of group work, these were the benefits:

• Students formulated new ideas
• Students expressed opinions
• students negotiated
• it focused their talking and kept them on task
• Students felt at ease when exploring the unknown
• Students showed true potential
• Less emphasis on teacher
• more realistic to career work

The Golden Rules

In their study of Australian schools in the early eighties, Cohen and Thomas (1984) identified four different kinds of disciplinary climate in approaches to learning:

Controlled climate

• Low misbehaviour
• High severity of punishment
• Punishment rare
• Strict and well-ordered classrooms

Conflictual climate

• High misbehaviour
• High severity of punishment
• Teachers overreact
• Constant tension

Libertarian climate

• High misbehaviour
• Low severity of punishment
• Over-relaxed
• Lack of pupil self-direction

Autonomous climate

• Low misbehaviour
• Low severity of punishment
• Self-disciplined pupils
• Pupils actively involved in learning

I would say that my classroom environment is a mixture of a controlled and autonomous environment.

It includes:

- Low severity of punishment

- Low misbehavior

- Pupils actively involved in learning

- Strict and well ordered lessons

- low misbehavior

- Punishment rare

Here are my classroom ‘Golden Rules’:

1. We will work to create a safe and comfortable classroom environment.
2. We will put our best effort into schoolwork and homework.
3. We will be respectful and supportive whilst providing encouragement to each other.
4. We will come to class on time, prepared with homework and materials.
5. We will come to each lesson with new information relevant to the topic being studied