A range of paradigms

Frank Smith (1992:35) comments:

A … continual and commonplace characteristic of the brain is understanding (or comprehension, which is the term psychologists and educational researchers employ when they want to make the everyday phenomenon of understanding into a special set of skills; the two terms are as synonymous as any two words can be – the dictionary defines understanding as comprehension and comprehension as understanding).

I disagree to some extent that the terms, 'comprehension' and 'understanding', are synonymous. Understanding is the process of following anther's thoughts or ideas, whereas comprehension is using those idea to develop further understanding whilst drawing your own conclusions.

Psychologists debate argue whether understanding can be considered the same thing as 'internalisation'. Understanding in reality is not just something which only moves inward, it is applied, practised and transferred to others. It is somewhat misleading to assume that understanding travels from the outer world across a boundary into the inner world. Full understanding requires information to be reapplied.

I do not experience my own understanding as something completely 'internal', especially as a teacher - I gain full understanding when information is recycled and passed on, this 'tests' how much knowledge I absorb. This is a way in which my own understanding is established collectively (and therefore, in some sense, externally).

How theories explain learning behaviour

Theories can be very useful to teachers as they engage in classroom behavior management. Examples of this might be when planning lessons for different ages, therefore a teacher can anticipate any behavioral problems that might occur using theories according to age or cognitive development. Social theories might allow a teacher to have a greater understanding of why a pupil behaves in a certain way and use techniques to render this. Affective theories give a teacher insight into ways of dealing with bad behavior using tried and tested techniques. The use of theories allows teachers to plan, evaluate and form strategies to ensure pupils learn.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, which indicates four types of nested environmental systems, which have influence within and between the systems, was used to focus the research findings of the EPPI research report (Powell and Tod, 2004) to within the context of a school. Therefore the review was limited, due to the time frame. It excluded studies that were linked to theories and behaviors outside the school context.

The key features of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is that the four different environments affect a pupil in different ways. These environments being; the Microsystem; the immediate environment that an individual interacts with (school, home, family), the Mesosystem; relations between microsystems (family experiences, peer experiences), the Exosystem: a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role (a parent loses a job, divorce), and the Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live (religion, values).

This theory can help teachers gain an understanding of why child behaves in a certain way and gives insight into how the needs of the child can be met. In the classroom or school context the different environments can be managed to create a safe, effective and positive place to learn.

Learning theory

Teachers who are emphasising formative assessment change their underlying beliefs about what counts as 'good teaching'. Their focus is less on teaching and more on learning in their classroom.
(Black et al., 2003: 80).

The transition from a focus on Assessment of Learning to a focus on Assessment for Learning creates a need for clearer learning theory.

Constructivist theory could be used to support the recommendations made in 'Assessment for Learning'. I am going to focus on the constructive theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Wood, Bruner and Ross when applying it to the approaches recommended in Assesment for learning (Afl).

Voygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) theory can assist teachers when applying the Questioning and wait time approach as teachers can assess what students already know, and need to know and have the ability to know with assistance. This means questions can be more focused and achievable for students. If students are unable to answer the questions simple prompts or hints can be used, supporting Wood, Bruner and Ross’s scaffolding theory.

Peer assessment can also be more effective by using the ZPD to establish who the 'more knowledgeable others (MKO) are, these MKOs can then be grouped together so the work they assess is at a similar level, allowing them to aim higher. On the other hand a MKO can be grouped with those less knowledgeable than them to help bring these pupils up to a reasonable level of understanding and achievement, allowing the MKOs to reinforce what they are doing right and giving a struggling student model answers, for example.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development can be used to assess what students should or should not be able to achieve in relation to the stage they are at. Therefore comment only marking can be more specific to the expected ability of the pupil. A rubric could also be produced reflecting the different stages of cognitive development which can be used for self assessment.

These theories all support the Afl recommendations and they are useful when incorporated into the different approaches of formative, summative and diagnostic assessment.

Self and peer assessment

The criteria for evaluating any learning achievements must be made transparent to pupils to enable them to have a clear overview both of the aims of their work and of what it means to complete it successfully. It is very difficult for pupils to achieve a learning goal unless they understand that goal and can assess what they need to do to reach it. So self assessment is crucial to learning.

The argument proposed by the AfL team is that peer assessment can be a stepping stone to self assessment - that peer and self assessment feed each other and improve the quality of teacher-pupil communication about learning.

While peer and self assessment can make important contributions to the quality of pupil learning, they do need to be carefully introduced and managed.

Here are some ground rules for peer assessment:

• We share our ideas and listen to each other
• We talk one at a time
• We respect each other's opinions
• We give reasons to explain our ideas
• If we disagree we ask 'why'?
• We try to agree in the end

(Mercer, 2000: 162)

 

• The criteria for evaluating any learning achievements must be made transparent to pupils to enable them to have a clear overview both of the aims of their work and of what it means to complete it successfully. Such criteria may well be abstract—concrete examples
  should be used in modelling exercises to develop understanding.
• Pupils should be taught the habits and skills of collaboration in peer-assessment, for these are of intrinsic value. Futhermore, peer discussion can help self-assessment by helping pupils to see their own work more objectively – through the eyes of their peers.
• Pupils should be encouraged to keep in mind the aims of their work and to assess their own progress to meet these aims as they proceed. They will then be able to guide their own work, and so become independent learners.

Feedback through marking

A culture of success should be promoted where every student can make achievements by building on their previous performance, rather than by being compared with others. Such a culture is promoted by informing pupils about the strengths and weaknesses demonstrated in their work and by giving feedback about what the next steps should be.
(Black et al., 2003: 46)

Main recommendations of feedback through marking:

• Written tasks, alongside oral questioning, should encourage pupils to develop and show understanding of the key features of what they have learnt.
• Comments should identify what has been done well and what still needs improvement,and give guidance on how to make that improvement.
• Opportunities for pupils to follow up comments should be planned as part of the overall learning process.

My own classroom marking policy is that:

• When I write a comment about what needs to be done next / thought about.
• My comments should make the pupils feel pleased with the work they have done but also provides constructive criticism.
• I never compare a students work to another's.
• Language should be used positively in order to stop pupils becoming demotivated.
• Marking should help pupils be even more successful in learning.
• The work is usually given back with a short debrief from myself.

The Assessment for Learning research project

In 2005, the UK Assessment Reform Group responded to this question in the following way:

The answer to this question is 'yes'. Assessment is one of the most powerful educational tools for promoting effective learning. But it must be used in the right way. There is no evidence that increasing the amount of testing will enhance learning. Instead the focus needs to be on helping teachers to use assessment as part of teaching and learning.
(Assessment Reform Group, 2005: 2)

The individual techniques being recommended by AfL are not all new:

• Rich questioning
• Comment only marking
• Sharing criteria with learners
• Self assessment
• Peer assessment

So what is new in general about this approach?

What is new is that formative assessment provides a way for teachers to create classrooms that are more consistent with the research on learning. A focus on formative assessment does not just add on a few techniques here and there – it organises the whole teaching and learning venture around learning and supports teachers in organising the learning experiences of their pupils more productively.
(Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall and Wiliam, 2003: 79)

In my classroom I use comment only marking when marking homework. I give a positive and negative comment and a comment about how the pupil can improve next time, this informs the student about what they are doing wrong or right and how they can do better. I get students to mark each others work and give them a copy of the mark criteria so they can see how to get top marks and understand what examiners are looking for in answers. I also use peer assessment which allows students to be more critical about themselves and reinforce the aims of the curriculum.

Key principles of behaviour for learning

Garners (2001) conceptual framework identifies the behaviour for learning model in which different factors can effect learning behaviour. It can best be conceptualized as a set of three relationships experienced by pupils. These
relate to their relationships:

• with themselves (how they fed about themselves, their self-confidence as a learner and their
  self-esteem);
• with others (how they interact socially and academically with others in their class and school);
• with the curriculum (how accessible they red a lesson is, how best they think they learn).

The four practical features which Garner identifies are:

- Leadership in the classroom

Three broad elements which help to define the ethos of your classroom are:

• motivation – you need to provide time :It the start of each lesson to tell pupils what they are learning and why. Pupils need to be involved at every stage in assessing whether these learning
  intentions have been met.
• emotional well-being- to help reduce pupil anxiety you should share the lesson structure with
  pupils at the start, so they know what is going to happen during the lesson;
• expectations - you need to give time at the start of the lesson and for each new activity to
  make clear what behaviours are needed for this piece of learning to be successful.
  

These three underpinning principles are embedded in more specific teacher actions, which allow you
to demonstrate your role as the 'class room leader' to your pupils. These include:

• good communication between yourself and your pupils;
• secure subject knowledge;
• Providing lively, well paced lessons;
• understanding and meeting the learning needs of all pupils in your class;
• acting on your reflections and evaluations of previous lessons
• demonstrating confidence and direction in managing pupils.

- incorporation of the promotion of positive relationships.

• modeling appropriate behaviour;
• positive reinforcement and the use of praise;
• positive correction;
• consistent and firm application of rules;
• Use of verbal and non-verbal communication;
• listening to pupils and respecting their opinions;
• remaining vigilant (pre-empting unacceptable behaviour);
• dealing positively with lateness and non-attendance.

- Structuring the lesson for positive behaviour and attendance

• focus and structure so that pupils arc clear about what is to be learned and how it fits with what they know already;
• actively engaging pupils in their learning so that they make their own meaning from it;
• developing pupils' learning skills systematically so that their learning becomes increasingly independent;
• using assessment for learning to help pupils reflect on what they already know, reinforce the learning being developed and set targets for the future
• having high expectations of the effort that pupils should make and what they can achieve
• motivating pupils by well-paced lessons, using stimulating activities matched a range of
  learning styles which encourage attendance;
• creating an environment that promotes learning in a settled and purposeful atmosphere.

- Rights, responsibilities, routines and rules.

• Teacher's responsibilities - you must seek to enable all pupils to learn, to seek and celebrate improvements in learning, to treat pupils with respect and to create a positive classroom environment in which pupils feel safe and able to learn.
• Teacher's rights - you must be allowed to teach with a minimum of hindrance, to feel safe, to be supported by colleagues and to be listened to.
• Pupils' responsibilities - pupils must be willing to learn, to allow others to learn, to co-operate with teaching and other staff and peers and to do their best at all times.
• Pupils' rights - pupils should he treated with respect, be safe, be able to learn and be listened to.

RULES

These are the mechanisms by which rights and responsibilities arc translated into adult and pupil
behaviours. They are best constructed collaboratively, so that the views of pupils arc taken into account.


ROUTINES

These arc the structures which underpin the rules and reinforce the smooth running of the classroom. The more habitual the routines become the more likely they arc to be used . Pupils who behave ill appropriately often do so because they are unsure of what is happening in the classroom at a given time.


CHOICES

Pupils should be encouraged to make choices about their behaviour and thus take responsibility for their own actions. Choice is guided by their responsibilities and leads to positive or negative consequences according to the choice made by the pupil.


CONSEQUENCES

Pupils know the consequences of sensible or inadvisable choices. Responsible choices lead to positive consequences; conversely, a choice to behave inappropriately leads to a known negative consequence.